Dying for love: Illegal international trade in hummingbird love charms
Funding information: Office of Law Enforcement of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Abstract
Hummingbirds (family Trochilidae) are among the most recognizable groups of birds, due to their tiny size, supremely maneuverable flight, and iridescent plumage. They are essential pollinators in ecosystems throughout the New World, and are welcome visitors to gardens and nectar feeders in every corner of the United States. Despite this familiarity, few people are aware that hummingbirds are the objects of active illegal international trade. The practice of incorporating the bodies of hummingbirds in love charms, known as chuparrosa charms, is a centuries-old tradition in Mexico. The practice has now spread to the United States. This report summarizes investigations of the hummingbird trade by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service from 2013 to 2021. A total of 905 hummingbird carcasses were recovered in these investigations, representing 22 different species, 18 of which are protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. While it appears that all hummingbirds were killed and packaged in Mexico, many originated from migratory U.S. populations. The species most frequently identified in chuparrosas was Ruby-throated Hummingbird, which nests entirely in the United States and occurs in Mexico only in the non-breeding season. Much remains to be learned about the dimensions of the chuparrosa trade, and its possible impacts on hummingbird populations.
1 INTRODUCTION
The vitality of hummingbirds has long given them special significance for indigenous cultures in the Americas (Anderson, 2017; Mazariegos, 2010; Quezada, 1984; Sault, 2016), and today fuels the popularity of attracting hummingbirds with nectar feeders. So great is this appreciation that hummingbird-centered ecotourism has developed in areas with high hummingbird diversity, including southeastern Arizona (American Bird Conservancy, 2021) and the Andean highlands (Conservation International, 2016).
For centuries, hummingbirds have been killed, traded, and sold to serve a variety of uses. The Incas constructed textiles of hummingbird feathers (Reina & Kensinger, 1991), which must have represented immense numbers of birds. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, millions of hummingbird skins were shipped to London and New York from South America to feed the fashion for decorating hats with feathers and whole mounted birds (Doughty, 1975; Smith, 2020).
Today, all hummingbirds (family Trochilidae) are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This protected status is accorded to species not presently threatened with extinction, but which could become so if international trade is not regulated. Thus, export permits are required to validate that the specimens were legally acquired. In addition, the 31 species of hummingbirds that have been recorded in the United States and Puerto Rico are strictly protected by the U.S. Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA). This prohibits all killing, possession, and sale of these species in the United States.
Beginning in 2013, the Office of Law Enforcement of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) became aware that traditional Mexican love charms incorporating the dried carcasses of hummingbirds were being sold in the United States. One of the colloquial words for hummingbird in Mexico is chuparrosa (literally “rose-sucker”), and investigators found that term associated with the hummingbird love charms sold in herbarias and botanicas, shops specializing in traditional Mexican goods and remedies. This paper reports on the results of USFWS investigations of this illegal trade, and of other cross-border traffic in hummingbirds.
1.1 Hummingbirds in Mexican culture
Hummingbirds have held an important place in Mexican culture since at least the time of the Aztecs, whose god Huitzilopochtli was often depicted in the guise of a hummingbird. Aztec warriors who died in battle or in sacrifices to Huitzilopochtli were believed to return and live forever in the bodies of hummingbirds, and the flesh of hummingbirds was thought to have medicinal power (Ortiz-Crespo, 1994).
The pre-Columbian use of hummingbirds in love magic was “a practice readily absorbed into colonial life and still very much alive today” (Thompson, 1998).
While the killing and sale of hummingbirds appears to be technically forbidden in Mexico, chuparrosa charms continue to be popular and widely available (Ebersole, 2018; Espindola & Rangel, 2019; Ledesma, 2012; Quezada, 1984). A survey of the large traditional Sonora Market in Mexico City documented 655 chuparrosas of seven generally common hummingbird species over a 2-month period (Gomez Alvarez & Reyes Gomez, 2010). Chuparrosa prices in Mexico City were 40–110 pesos in 2009 (Gomez Alvarez & Reyes Gomez, 2010) and 50–150 pesos in 2019 (Ebersole, 2018), corresponding to approximately US $3.00–$8.00. The sellers stated that the hummingbirds were captured in central Mexico, which was consistent with the species identified from the market (Gomez Alvarez & Reyes Gomez, 2010). Reported methods of capture included nets and slingshots.
The Mexican federal endangered species protection law (NOM-059) affords strict protections to 20 hummingbird species and subspecies. Most of those are rare endemics or near-endemics and are not known to be targeted for chuparrosa charms. Facing many critical conservation issues with limited resources, Mexican conservation officials have not regarded the chuparrosa trade as a high priority, while acknowledging that more information is needed (Ebersole, 2018; Espindola & Rangel, 2019).
1.2 Description of hummingbird love charms
The hummingbird carcasses sold in love charms are generally dried, usually with the viscera removed. Contemporary chuparrosa charms sold in the United States are most commonly packaged with printed prayers (oraciones) in Spanish, often with Hecho en Mexico stickers affixed. In the most complete chuparrosa presentation, the hummingbird's body is contained in a red paper tube with the head exposed (Figure 1). The tube itself is concealed within a tassel of bright satin strings, and lower portion is filled with coarse sawdust or grit (Figure 2). Other hummingbird carcasses are sold in gauze bags, or without any packaging other than red thread through the eyes to suspend the charm (Figure 3). Additional types of packaging of hummingbird charms are described in Table S1 and Figures S1–S6. Hummingbirds wrapped in red are sometimes referred to as vestida, or dressed, and sold for higher prices.



The most common oracion in chuparrosa charms seized by USFWS can be translated as follows:
1.2.1 Prayer of the chuparrosa
Oh divine chuparrosa! You that give and take away the nectar from the flowers, you that give life and teach women to love, I come to you as the sinner. You have powerful fluids, so protect me and give me the powers to possess and enjoy any woman I want, whether it be a maiden, married or widow, for I swear by the spirits of Mamartaki Guillot, Euolpas, and Bedort not to miss a single moment of worship, and to keep you in your holy reliquary, so grant me what I ask, my beautiful chuparrosa. This prayer is prayed prostrate on my knees, before the image of Jesus Crucified, with all devotion taking in hand a lit pure wax candle, and praying three Our Fathers and two Ave Marias.
1.3 Other uses of hummingbird charms
In addition to traditional Mexican chuparrosa charms, USFWS enforcement personnel have intercepted hummingbird carcasses intended for use in a variety of other ceremonies. These include those associated with Santa Muerte, the goddess of death, a popular figure among Mexican drug cartels, as well as for practitioners of Santeria and Yoruba, which have many followers in the Caribbean and Caribbean emigrant communities (Ebersole, 2018; Thompson, 1998). These are usually simply dried carcasses, without any associated packaging. Hummingbirds intended as love charms are sometimes sold without oraciones or other packaging, and since herbarias sell to a variety of customers, it was often not possible to know how the hummingbirds would be used.
2 METHODS
Examination of hummingbirds was conducted at the National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory (NFWFL) in Ashland, Oregon. This is the federal facility providing analytical support, including wildlife species identification, to the USFWS Office of Law Enforcement and cooperating state and international agencies. The Laboratory is accredited by the ANSI National Accreditation Board under ISO/IEC 17025.
Hummingbirds were submitted for identification by USFWS law enforcement personnel. Submissions were made primarily by Special Agents, several of whom carried out coordinated investigations of chuparrosa sales in Texas and other states. These investigations involved developing leads culminating in purchases of chuparrosa charms from businesses or individuals, often by undercover agents. Evidence submissions were also made by Wildlife Inspectors, who intercepted cross-border shipments of hummingbird carcasses.
Hummingbird carcasses were assigned to the Lab's Morphology Section for species identification. Procedures for evidence handling and documentation followed the Standards and Guidelines of the Society for Wildlife Forensic Science (SWFS, 2018; Trail, 2021). The carcasses were removed from packaging, if present, documented with photographs, and examined visually for taxonomically informative characters, including plumage color and patterns and body and bill size and shape. The evidence was compared with specimens in the NFWFL reference collection, with relevant published literature (Howell, 2002; Howell & Webb, 1995; Pyle, 1997; West, 2015) and the data and images on Birds of the World online (Billerman et al., 2020). Diagnostic characters were documented with detailed notes, and forensic reports with the conclusions of the analyses were submitted to the submitting officer.
Not all of the hummingbird carcasses could be identified to species based on morphology, due to their poor condition and to the similarity of the females of some closely related species, particularly Ruby-throated (Archilochus colubris) and Black-chinned (Archilochus alexandri) Hummingbirds. All the hummingbird remains in one large case (n = 136) were analyzed genetically following the closure of the investigation, to compare the two techniques (Wostenberg et al., 2022). The additional identifications based on those analyses are incorporated into the results reported here.
3 RESULTS
From 2013 to 2021, a total of 905 hummingbird carcasses were examined at NFWFL, representing seizures in 52 investigations (each investigation targeted a different business or individual). The hummingbirds belonged to 22 different species (Table 1), 18 of which (82%) are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Only three hummingbird species nesting in the continental United States have not been documented in the trade: Anna's (Calypte anna), Costa's (Calypte costae), and Buff-bellied (Amazilia yucatanensis).
Common name | Scientific name | Total | Percentage |
---|---|---|---|
Cinnamon Hummingbirda | Amazilia rutila | 14 | 2 |
Unspecified Archilochusa | Archilochus sp. | 263 | 29 |
Ruby-throated Hummingbirda | Archilochus colubris | 146 | 16 |
Black-chinned Hummingbirda | Archilochus alexandri | 36 | 4 |
White-eared Hummingbirda | Basilinna leucotis | 92 | 10 |
Unspecified Calothorax | Calothorax sp. | 14 | 2 |
Lucifer Hummingbirda | Calothorax lucifer | 7 | 1 |
Beautiful Hummingbird | Calothorax pulcher | 1 | <1 |
Canivett's Emerald | Chlorostilbon canivettii | 1 | <1 |
Unspecified Chlorostilbon | Chlorostilbon sp. | 3 | <1 |
Mexican Violeteara | Colibri thalassinus | 6 | 1 |
Broad-billed Hummingbirda | Cynanthus latirostris | 10 | 1 |
Unspecified Phaeoptila/Cynanthus | Phaeoptila/Cynanthus sp. | 11 | 1 |
Dusky Hummingbird | Phaeoptila sordida | 121 | 14 |
Rivoli's Hummingbirda | Eugenes fulgens | 45 | 5 |
Unspecified Heliomaster | Heliomaster sp. | 2 | <1 |
Plain-capped Starthroata | Heliomaster constantii | 3 | <1 |
Blue-throated Mountain-Gema | Lampornis clemenciae | 8 | 1 |
Amethyst-throated Mountain-Gema | Lampornis amethystinus | 1 | <1 |
Violet-crowned Hummingbirda | Leucolia violiceps | 44 | 5 |
Green-fronted Hummingbird | Leucolia viridifrons | 1 | <1 |
Berylline Hummingbirda | Saucerottia beryllina | 2 | <1 |
Bumblebee/Wine-throated | Selasphorus [Atthis] sp. | 5 | 1 |
Unspecified Selasphorusa | Selasphorus sp. | 22 | 2 |
Broad-tailed Hummingbirda | Selasphorus platycercus | 17 | 2 |
Allen's Hummingbirda | Selasphorus sasin | 4 | <1 |
Rufous Hummingbirda | Selasphorus rufus | 1 | <1 |
Bumblebee Hummingbirda | Selasphorus heloisa | 1 | <1 |
Calliope Hummingbirda | Selasphorus calliope | 1 | <1 |
Unidentified hummingbird | Family Trochilidae | 23 | 3 |
Total | 905 |
- a Taxa listed under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
The most commonly identified species in the remains was Ruby-throated Hummingbird, accounting for 16% of carcasses identified at the species level. In addition, 29% of carcasses were Archilochus hummingbirds that could only be identified as either Ruby-throated or Black-chinned Hummingbirds. Given that Ruby-throateds outnumbered Black-chinneds by over 4:1 among Archilochus identified to species (Table 1), Ruby-throateds could represent as many as a third of all the carcasses in the trade.
Ruby-throated Hummingbirds do not nest in Mexico, but only migrate and winter there (Weidensaul et al., 2020). That is also true of Allen's and Rufous Hummingbirds (Clark & Mitchell, 2020; Healy & Calder, 2020). Thus, all the carcasses of these three species represented U.S. breeding birds. A striking finding in these investigations was the discovery of a Ruby-throated Hummingbird with a USFWS band. This bird, a female, was banded on June 21, 2016 near Carbondale, Illinois, and its carcass was purchased in a packet with a chuparrosa prayer in Laredo, Texas on December 15, 2017.
Four species identified in these carcasses are endemic to Mexico: the Dusky (Phaeoptila sordida), Green-fronted (Leucolia viridifrons), Beautiful (Calothorax pulcher), and Bumblebee (Selasphorus heloisa) Hummingbirds. Even though all the remaining species in the trade are found on both sides of the United States/Mexico border, USFWS investigators have found no evidence that hummingbirds are being killed in the United States for ceremonial use or the production of chuparrosa charms. Available evidence suggests that the source for all the hummingbirds in love charms is Mexico. Some species found in these objects also occur in other Central and South American countries, so origin from outside Mexico cannot be ruled out.
The U.S. seizures allow only limited inferences to be made concerning where hummingbirds are being killed for chuparrosa charms in Mexico. Most of the 22 species identified in the U.S. trade are widely distributed in semi-arid and highland habitats of central and northern Mexico. Published information suggests that many hummingbirds are killed for chuparrosa charms in the states surrounding Mexico City, including Queretaro, Hidalgo, Puebla, Morelos, and the State of Mexico (Garcia Flores García Flores, 2020; Gomez Alvarez & Reyes Gomez, 2010). However, that may be an artifact of where surveys have been conducted.
The majority of Mexico's 58 hummingbird species have not been documented in chuparrosa charms. Some of those have restricted ranges, including the hummingbird taxa on the Mexican endangered species list (Arizmendi et al., 2016). The only species on that list that has been identified in the trade is the Green-fronted Hummingbird (Leucolia viridifrons), which is found in a limited area of southwestern Mexico and adjacent Guatemala, and was recorded in one seizure at a border crossing. Other species never reported in the trade belong to familiar groups of tropical hummingbirds, including the hermits (Phaethornis and relatives), sabrewings (Campylopterus), and coquettes (Lophornis), which occur in Mexico primarily in the humid southern lowlands. The chuparrosa tradition may be less developed in that region of Mexico, a possibility that merits further study.
Despite the lack of specificity on geographic origin, the U.S. seizures suggest different sources and suppliers. Seized hummingbird carcasses were contained in some form of special packaging 79% of the time; the remaining 21% were simply in plastic or paper bags. In total, six different types of packaging (including “no packaging”) were documented (Table S1; Figures S1–S6), as well as a variety of different printed labels and prayers. The packaging shown in Figures 1 and 2 (designated P1) was the most common, associated with 40% of all carcasses; N = 905), but the diversity of presentations suggests that a number of different producers are packaging chuparrosas for retail sale.
A diversity of suppliers is also suggested by differences in the hummingbird species seized in different states. For example, Archilochus hummingbirds (Ruby-throated and Black-chinned) made up more than 50% of chuparrosa charms in Texas (428 of 786), but were never found in seizures in Minnesota, Florida, or California. Rivoli's Hummingbirds comprised 74% (20 of 27) of seizures in Minnesota, but less than 3% elsewhere. Dusky Hummingbirds were identified in 121 chuparrosas in Texas, while Cinnamon Hummingbirds represented 14 of 15 carcasses seized in California - but neither species was confiscated in any other state.
Almost no information is available on the mechanisms or techniques of hummingbird collection in Mexico. Traditionally, hummingbirds were killed with slingshots (Gomez Alvarez & Reyes Gomez, 2010). It appears that many are now killed with firearms. The observation of a pellet on the surface of a carcass led to routine radiographic examination of the hummingbird carcasses (Figure 4). Overall, 27% (197/739) of X-rayed carcasses contained metal fragments, mostly very small lead shot.

Most of the hummingbird carcasses (92%) seized in the USFWS investigations were being offered for sale in traditional shops catering to Mexican immigrant communities located in Texas, New Mexico, and Minnesota. The remaining 8% were intercepted at U.S. ports of entry. The hummingbirds in retail shops were either purchased by undercover enforcement officers, or confiscated pursuant to search warrants. The prices for chuparrosas sold in the United States were generally between US $20–$50, with one offered for “$100 + tax.” The bulk of seizures (89%) were made in Texas, reflecting a focused USFWS investigation of the chuparrosa trade in that state.
As of this writing, five cases brought against sellers of chuparrosa charms in the United States have resulted in sentences. All the suspects pled guilty to violations of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, which could have resulted in prison time and fines of up to $250,000. The sentences resulting from the guilty pleas included no prison time, with 1–4 years of probation, and fines ranging from $100 to $5000, plus up to 6 months of home confinement and up to 212 h of community service. Other cases are pending.
4 DISCUSSION
While this report documents the occurrence and variety of the illegal trade in hummingbirds from Mexico, much remains unknown. These data are based on enforcement activity over a 9-year time span, by investigators working in different USFWS regions with varying law enforcement priorities. The Special Agents in Texas, where most of the investigations were conducted, believe that their cases exposed only a fraction of the local trade in chuparrosa charms. However, these data do not allow analysis of the extent or trends in chuparrosa sales in the United States
The hummingbird carcasses seized in these investigations document the occurrence of an active illegal international trade. However, the levels of hummingbird mortality documented for the chuparrosa trade to date (this study; Gomez Alvarez & Reyes Gomez, 2010) are not sufficient to have measurable or lasting effects on hummingbird populations. Among U.S.-breeding species, the Breeding Bird Survey has documented apparent population declines for Rufous Hummingbirds, while Ruby-throated and Anna's Hummingbirds are increasing (1966–2019 data; Sauer et al., 2020). Other species have insufficient data to reveal clear tends. The Ruby-throated Hummingbird was the species most commonly found in the chuparrosa charms in this study (Table 1), but its populations remain robust. The third, fourth, and fifth-most frequent species were White-eared, Rivoli's, and Violet-crowned Hummingbirds, all of which have limited U.S. ranges in the borderlands of Arizona and New Mexico, but are widely distributed in Mexico. Their vulnerability to the chuparrosa trade is unknown.
Much remains unknown on the locations and magnitude of hummingbird collection in Mexico. While many species in the trade are widely distributed in Mexico, intensive take for chuparrosa charms in certain areas could impact local populations. Given the vital ecological role of hummingbirds, with myriad plant species dependent on them for pollination (Arizmendi et al., 2016; Martín González et al., 2015; Schuchmann, 1999), even local population declines could have far-reaching impacts.
Awareness of the ecological importance of hummingbirds and of the potential threat posed by the chuparrosa trade is growing in Mexico, leading to public education efforts to discourage the use of chuparrosa charms (Espindola & Rangel, 2019; Ledesma, 2012; Trail & Chavarria, 2017; UNAM, 2019). Enhanced collaborative efforts between the United States and Mexico are needed to understand the hummingbird trade and to develop effective enforcement strategies to protect these charismatic and ecologically important birds.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Office of Law Enforcement of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The author would like to thank the Special Agents and Wildlife Inspectors of the Office of Law Enforcement of the US Fish and Wildlife Service who uncovered this trade and gathered all the evidence on which this paper is based. Gabriela Chavarria, Maria Coro Arizmendi, and Blanca Roldan-Clara provided insights into the trade in Mexico. Ariel Gaffney and Darren Wostenberg assisted with hummingbird identifications, and Barry Baker provided a thoughtful review of the manuscript.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Open Research
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Data are available on request from author Pepper W. Trail ([email protected]).